How is GPS used? Understanding navigation system use and its relation to spatial ability

Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications

Table 1 Descriptive statistics for the measures in the online (188) and in-person (61) studies

Variable	N	Omega	M	SD	Skewness	Kurtosis
1. SOD	249	0.90	3.90	1.01	0.03	− 0.22
2. Spatial anxiety	249	0.93	2.76	0.86	0.23	− 0.62
3. Exploration tendency	249	0.89	3.74	1.09	− 0.12	− 0.38
4. Navigational growth mindset	249	0.94	4.61	1.10	− 0.30	− 0.47
5. GPS dependency	249	0.91	3.56	0.83	0.09	− 0.89
6. Turn-by-turn GPS	249	0.87	0.96	0.41	0.28	0.09
7. Route planning GPS	249	0.92	0.90	0.52	0.06	− 0.68
8. Time and traffic estimates GPS	249	0.91	1.21	0.48	− 0.24	− 0.40
9. Finding a specific service GPS	248	0.91	0.89	0.47	0.10	− 0.48
10. Social desirability	188	0.70	3.94	2.27	0.21	− 0.54
11. Mental rotation	188	0.85	7.20	4.62	0.38	− 0.58
12. Spatial orientation test^†	61	−	3.33	0.89	− 0.42	− 0.81
13. Onsite pointing (within-route)	61	0.94	23.16	16.36	0.56	− 1.19
14. Onsite pointing (between-route)	61	0.91	50.29	20.71	− 0.22	− 0.80
15. Map reconstruction	61	–	0.65	0.27	− 0.59	− 0.95

^†The spatial orientation test was log-transformed to satisfy the assumption of normality
Skewness: all measures had a value between − 0.59 and 0.56, and were within a normal range of values. Kurtosis: all measures had a value between − 1.19 and 0.09, and were within a normal range of values